Understanding Human Development, Learning, Memory, and Intelligence

1. What is the primary interaction reflected in development?

Development reflects the interaction of nature (genes, biology) and nurture (environment, experience).

2. What is epigenetics?

Epigenetics shows that environmental factors can turn genes on or off without altering the DNA sequence.

3. Name two common teratogens that can disrupt prenatal development.

Alcohol, lithium, cigarettes, radiation, and Zika are common teratogens that can cause physical or cognitive abnormalities.

4. According to Harlow's study, what is more important for attachment than feeding?

Harlow's study showed that contact comfort is more important than feeding for infant attachment.

5. What are the four attachment styles identified by the Strange Situation?

The four attachment styles are Secure, Avoidant, Anxious/Resistant, and Disorganized.

6. What is object permanence, and in which of Piaget's stages does it develop?

Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when not seen, developing in the Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years).

7. Define egocentrism as described by Piaget.

Egocentrism is a limitation in the Preoperational stage where children struggle to see things from another person's perspective.

8. What does Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refer to?

ZPD is the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable other.

9. What is the definition of learning in psychology?

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior potential due to experience.

10. Explain the difference between habituation and dishabituation.

Habituation is a decreased response to a repeated stimulus, while dishabituation is renewed attention to a novel stimulus.

11. In classical conditioning, what do UCS, UCR, CS, and CR stand for?

UCS is Unconditioned Stimulus, UCR is Unconditioned Response, CS is Conditioned Stimulus, and CR is Conditioned Response.

12. What did the Little Albert experiment demonstrate?

The Little Albert experiment demonstrated how conditioned fear can be created by pairing a neutral stimulus (rat) with an unpleasant one (loud noise).

13. How does positive reinforcement differ from negative reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior, while negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

14. Which reinforcement schedule is highly resistant to extinction, and why?

Variable ratio schedules are highly resistant to extinction because the reward is unpredictable, encouraging persistent behavior.

15. What is observational learning, as shown by Bandura's Bobo doll study?

Observational learning is learning by watching and imitating others' behaviors, even without direct reinforcement, as seen in the Bobo doll study.

16. Why is memory considered reconstructive rather than a recording system?

Memory is reconstructive because it is prone to distortion and actively rebuilt each time it's accessed, not simply played back.

17. Explain the difference between proactive and retroactive interference.

Proactive interference occurs when old information interferes with new, while retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with old.

18. What does the DRM paradigm demonstrate about memory?

The DRM paradigm demonstrates reconstructive memory by showing people often recall a related but unpresented word.

19. Name two factors that can decrease the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Stress, weapon presence, cross-race identification, and post-event discussion can decrease eyewitness testimony accuracy.

20. What is the capacity of short-term memory (STM) and how can it be increased?

STM capacity is 7 ± 2 items, and it can be increased by chunking information into meaningful units.

21. What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?

The hippocampus is crucial for the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory.

22. List three strategies from the CRIME acronym for improving memory.

CRIME strategies include Chunking, Rehearsal, Imagery, Mnemonics, and Elaboration.

23. What is the difference between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence?

Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve novel problems, while crystallized intelligence is accumulated knowledge and skills.

24. How is IQ calculated?

IQ is calculated as (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100.

25. What is the Flynn Effect?

The Flynn Effect describes the phenomenon of IQ scores rising across generations due to improved education, environment, and abstract thinking.