Development, Learning, Memory, and Intelligence in Psychology

1. What is the core debate in developmental psychology regarding Nature vs. Nurture?

This debate questions whether psychological traits and disorders are primarily determined by biological/genetic factors (nature) or by environmental/experiential factors (nurture).

2. Explain the difference between the 'One Course' and 'Many Courses' views of development.

'One Course' suggests a universal sequence of development for all children, while 'Many Courses' emphasizes unique developmental paths influenced by culture and individual variability.

3. How do the continuity and discontinuity perspectives differ in describing development?

Continuity views development as a gradual, smooth progression, whereas discontinuity sees it as occurring in distinct stages with periods of rapid and slow change.

4. Distinguish between genotype and phenotype.

Genotype is the specific set of genes an individual carries (internal blueprint), while phenotype refers to the observable characteristics influenced by both genotype and environment.

5. What is epigenetics and how does it differ from genetics?

Epigenetics involves heritable changes in phenotype without altering the DNA sequence, meaning gene expression can change due to environmental influences, unlike genetics which focuses on DNA inheritance.

6. Define a teratogen and provide two examples.

A teratogen is a factor that causes abnormal development of the fetus. Examples include the Zika virus, radiation, and cigarettes.

7. What was the main conclusion from Harlow's monkey study regarding attachment?

Harlow's study concluded that contact comfort and security are critical for attachment, not just feeding, as infant monkeys preferred the soft cloth mother.

8. Describe the characteristics of a securely attached infant in the Strange Situation.

A securely attached infant is distressed when the caregiver leaves, easily comforted upon return, and uses the caregiver as a secure base for exploration.

9. Explain the difference between assimilation and accommodation in Piaget's theory.

Assimilation is fitting new information into existing schemas, while accommodation is adjusting schemas to fit new information.

10. What is object permanence and in which of Piaget's stages does it develop?

Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight, developing during Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage (birth-2 years).

11. What is egocentrism, a core limitation of Piaget's Preoperational Stage?

Egocentrism is the inability of children to easily take others' perspectives, often demonstrated by the Three Mountains Task where they only see their own view.

12. Define Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

ZPD is the distance between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with help from a more knowledgeable person.

13. According to Kimble (1967), what is the definition of learning?

Learning is a relatively permanent change in a living being's behavior potentiality as a result of experience.

14. Differentiate between habituation and dishabituation.

Habituation is a decreased response to a repeated stimulus, while dishabituation is an increased response when a new stimulus is presented.

15. What is the fundamental difference between classical and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning involves learning that events occur together (S-S learning), while operant conditioning involves learning that one's behavior affects an outcome (S-R learning).

16. Define positive reinforcement and its effect on behavior.

Positive reinforcement is when a behavior leads to the addition of a stimulus, causing the behavior to increase.

17. Explain negative punishment and its outcome.

Negative punishment is when a behavior leads to the removal of a desirable stimulus, causing the behavior to decrease.

18. Why is the statement 'Human memory works like a tape recorder' considered false?

Memory is not a perfect recording; it is reconstructive and subject to distortion, rather than an accurate replay of events.

19. Using the PORN mnemonic, explain proactive and retroactive interference.

Proactive interference (PO) is when old information interferes with new, while retroactive interference (RN) is when new information interferes with old.

20. List two factors that can decrease the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Eyewitness memory is less accurate when observing someone of a different race or when the situation is stressful (e.g., a weapon is present).

21. What is the 'Magical Number 7 ± 2' related to in memory, and how can it be expanded?

It refers to the average capacity of short-term memory (5-9 items). It can be expanded through chunking, organizing information into meaningful groups.

22. Why is elaborative rehearsal more effective for long-term retention than maintenance rehearsal?

Elaborative rehearsal involves thinking about meaning and linking to prior knowledge, making it much more effective for encoding into long-term memory than simple repetition.

23. What is anterograde amnesia and what famous case study exemplified it?

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia, famously exemplified by Case H.M.

24. What does predictive validity assess in the context of intelligence tests?

Predictive validity assesses whether performance on a test can predict important outcomes, such as class grades or future career success.

25. Differentiate between Cattell's fluid and crystallized intelligence.

Fluid intelligence is the capacity to solve new problems and deal with novel situations, while crystallized intelligence is accumulated knowledge over the lifespan.