Ottoman Decline and European Geopolitics (1774-1914)

1. What significant event in 1774 marked the beginning of the Ottoman Empire's substantial decline in power?

The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774 is widely recognized as the turning point that signaled the significant decline of the Ottoman Empire. This treaty, signed after a defeat against Russia, resulted in territorial losses and granted Russia certain rights within the Ottoman Empire, effectively weakening its sovereignty and opening the door for further European interference.

2. Which major European powers began to contend for the partition of Ottoman territories after its weakening became apparent?

Following the Ottoman Empire's decline, several European powers vied for its territories. Key players included Austria, Russia, Britain, and France, all seeking to expand their influence or gain strategic advantages. Germany also joined this struggle after 1870, further complicating the geopolitical landscape.

3. Name two significant reform efforts undertaken by the Ottoman Empire in response to its diminishing strength.

The Ottoman Empire initiated several reforms to modernize and address internal issues. Two notable efforts were the abolition of the Janissaries, a traditional military corps that had become a source of internal instability, and the promulgation of the Tanzimat and Islahat Edicts. These edicts aimed at administrative, legal, and social reforms, including the guarantee of minority rights, to strengthen the state and prevent further disintegration.

4. What foreign policy strategy did the Ottoman Empire adopt to navigate the complex geopolitical landscape during its decline?

The Ottoman Empire adopted a 'balance of power' foreign policy. This strategy involved aligning with various European powers at different times to prevent any single power from becoming too dominant or from completely dismantling the Empire. It was a pragmatic approach to survive amidst the competing ambitions of European states, often playing one power against another to secure its own interests and territorial integrity, albeit temporarily.

5. What was the 'Greek Project' and which European leaders conceived it?

The 'Greek Project' was a grand geopolitical scheme conceived by Russia's Catherine II and Austria's Joseph II. Its primary aim was to expel the Ottomans from Europe and re-establish a Byzantine Empire under Russian influence. Although ambitious, this project ultimately did not materialize, partly due to the death of Joseph II, but it highlighted the expansionist designs of European powers on Ottoman territories.

6. Describe the two phases of the 'Eastern Question' concerning the Ottoman Empire.

The 'Eastern Question' evolved in two distinct phases. The initial period, from 1071 to 1683, saw European states primarily defending themselves against Ottoman expansion and territorial gains. The subsequent phase, however, involved European powers actively intervening in Ottoman internal affairs, often using the pretext of protecting non-Muslim minorities and inciting nationalist uprisings to further their own interests and facilitate the partition of Ottoman lands.

7. What pretext did European powers often use to intervene in Ottoman internal affairs?

European powers frequently used the pretext of protecting non-Muslim minorities within the Ottoman Empire to justify their intervention in its internal affairs. This concern for minority rights often masked their true intentions, which included weakening Ottoman sovereignty, gaining influence, and ultimately facilitating the partition of its territories. They also incited nationalist uprisings among these groups to destabilize the Empire further.

8. How did the French Revolution of 1789 impact the multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire?

The French Revolution of 1789 significantly impacted the multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire by spreading ideas of nationalism and liberty. These revolutionary ideals challenged the existing monarchical structures prevalent in Europe and, more critically, within the diverse Ottoman Empire. This fueled nationalist sentiments among various ethnic groups, leading to uprisings and demands for independence, thereby exacerbating internal tensions and contributing to the Empire's disintegration.

9. What was the purpose of the Vienna Congress of 1815 and the Metternich System?

The Vienna Congress of 1815 aimed to restore the old monarchical order in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars and suppress the revolutionary ideals spread by the French Revolution. The Metternich System, named after Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, was a conservative political system designed to maintain this order through alliances and interventions, preventing the rise of nationalism and liberalism. Despite these efforts, nationalist movements continued to gain momentum, challenging the established order.

10. What was the Mora Rebellion and what was its outcome for Greece?

The Mora Rebellion was a significant nationalist uprising in Greece, fueled by nationalist sentiments and instigated by European powers. This rebellion ultimately led to the independence of Greece from the Ottoman Empire. Despite Ottoman efforts to suppress it, including assistance from Mehmet Ali Pasha of Egypt, European intervention, particularly the destruction of the Ottoman fleet at Navarino, culminated in the Treaty of Edirne (1829), which formally recognized Greek sovereignty.

11. What role did Mehmet Ali Pasha of Egypt play in the Mora Rebellion?

Mehmet Ali Pasha of Egypt provided military assistance to the Ottoman Empire in its efforts to suppress the Mora Rebellion. His forces were deployed to aid the Ottomans against the Greek nationalists. However, despite his contributions, European intervention, specifically the destruction of the Ottoman fleet at Navarino, ultimately undermined the Ottoman-Egyptian efforts and paved the way for Greek independence.

12. What was the significance of the Battle of Navarino in the context of Greek independence?

The Battle of Navarino was a pivotal naval engagement where a combined European fleet (British, French, and Russian) decisively destroyed the Ottoman and Egyptian fleets in 1827. This intervention was crucial in securing Greek independence, as it severely weakened the Ottoman Empire's ability to suppress the Mora Rebellion. The battle effectively forced the Ottomans to accept Greek sovereignty, which was later formalized by the Treaty of Edirne.

13. What was the main outcome of the Treaty of Edirne (1829)?

The main outcome of the Treaty of Edirne (1829) was the formal recognition of Greek sovereignty by the Ottoman Empire. This treaty concluded the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 and was a direct consequence of the Mora Rebellion and European intervention, particularly the Battle of Navarino. It marked a significant territorial loss for the Ottomans and a triumph for nationalist movements in the Balkans.

14. What were the primary causes of the Crimean War (1853-1856)?

The Crimean War (1853-1856) was primarily caused by Russia's ambition to gain access to warm-water ports and control the Ottoman Straits, which were crucial for naval power and trade. Additionally, disputes over the protection of Holy Places in Palestine, where Russia sought to assert its influence over Orthodox Christians, further escalated tensions. These factors, combined with European powers' desire to curb Russian expansion, led to the conflict.

15. What were the two main provisions of the Treaty of Paris (1856) regarding the Ottoman Empire?

The Treaty of Paris (1856), which ended the Crimean War, had two main provisions concerning the Ottoman Empire. Firstly, it formally recognized the Ottoman Empire as a European power and guaranteed its territorial integrity, seemingly protecting it from further Russian encroachment. Secondly, it allowed for increased European interference in Ottoman affairs under the guise of protecting reforms, effectively giving European powers a pretext to meddle in its internal governance.

16. What were the main drivers behind the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, also known as the 93 War?

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, or the 93 War, was primarily driven by Russian expansionism and the ideology of Pan-Slavism. Russia sought to expand its influence in the Balkans and liberate Slavic populations under Ottoman rule, often using their protection as a pretext for military intervention. The brutal suppression of uprisings in the Balkans by the Ottomans also provided a casus belli for Russia.

17. Why was the Treaty of San Stefano, signed after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, rejected by European powers?

The Treaty of San Stefano was rejected by European powers, particularly Britain and Austria-Hungary, because it significantly increased Russian influence in the Balkans and threatened the existing balance of power in Europe. The treaty created a large Bulgarian state, effectively a Russian satellite, which would have given Russia direct access to the Aegean Sea and upset the geopolitical equilibrium. Concerned about Russian dominance, other powers demanded a revision of the treaty.

18. Name three territorial losses for the Ottomans resulting from the Congress of Berlin (1878).

The Congress of Berlin (1878) resulted in substantial territorial losses for the Ottoman Empire. These included Kars, Ardahan, and Batum, which were ceded to Russia. Additionally, Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro gained full independence, further diminishing Ottoman control in the Balkans. These losses highlighted the Empire's weakening state and the increasing assertiveness of European powers.

19. What was the administrative status of Bosnia-Herzegovina after the Congress of Berlin (1878)?

After the Congress of Berlin (1878), Bosnia-Herzegovina was placed under Austrian administration. Although technically still part of the Ottoman Empire, this arrangement effectively gave Austria-Hungary control over the region. This decision was a compromise among European powers, aiming to prevent Russian dominance in the Balkans while further eroding Ottoman sovereignty and setting the stage for future conflicts.

20. Which European power gained control of Cyprus after the Congress of Berlin (1878)?

Following the Congress of Berlin (1878), Cyprus was placed under British control. This move was part of a broader strategy by Britain to secure its interests in the Eastern Mediterranean and protect its routes to India. Although the island remained nominally under Ottoman sovereignty for a period, British administration effectively detached it from Ottoman control, marking another significant territorial loss for the Empire.

21. What was the significance of Article 61 of the Congress of Berlin (1878)?

Article 61 of the Congress of Berlin (1878) concerned reforms for the Armenian population within the Ottoman Empire. It stipulated that the Ottoman government would carry out reforms in the provinces inhabited by Armenians and guarantee their security against Kurds and Circassians. This article laid the groundwork for what became known as the Armenian Question, providing European powers with a pretext for future intervention and contributing to the complex history of Armenian-Ottoman relations.

22. How did the Straits Question evolve and what was the outcome of the London Straits Convention of 1841?

The Straits Question, originating from the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, evolved into an international issue concerning the control and passage through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. The London Straits Convention of 1841 was a significant outcome, which formally ended full Ottoman sovereignty over the waterways. It stipulated that the Straits would be closed to warships of all nations during peacetime, effectively internationalizing their status and limiting Ottoman control.

23. Which states formed the coalition that attacked the Ottoman Empire in the First Balkan War (1912-1913), and what was a major territorial loss for the Ottomans?

In the First Balkan War (1912-1913), a coalition of Balkan states—Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro—attacked the weakened Ottoman Empire. A major territorial loss for the Ottomans was most of Thrace, which was formalized by the Treaty of London (1913). This war dramatically reduced the Ottoman Empire's remaining territories in Europe, marking a severe blow to its presence on the continent.

24. What was the outcome of the Second Balkan War for the Ottoman Empire?

The Second Balkan War erupted among the victorious Balkan states over the division of spoils from the First Balkan War. The Ottoman Empire capitalized on this disunity and managed to reclaim some lost territory, specifically Eastern Thrace, including the strategically important city of Edirne. While still a period of overall decline, this brief recovery demonstrated a temporary opportunistic gain amidst the conflicts of its former subjects.

25. Name three internal factors attributed to the Ottoman defeats in the Balkan Wars.

The Ottoman defeats in the Balkan Wars were attributed to several internal factors. These included the army's involvement in politics, which undermined its professional effectiveness and unity. Additionally, a lack of discipline within the military ranks and the premature demobilization of experienced troops before the conflicts began significantly weakened their fighting capacity. These internal weaknesses made the Empire vulnerable to the coordinated attacks of the Balkan coalition.